Heresy claims have long been a source of conflict in religiously diverse societies, often resulting in violence and social exclusion. In Indonesia, accusations of heresy against minority groups have led to severe consequences, including forced displacement and prolonged marginalisation. Two groups marginalized this way include Ahmadiyya communities on the island of Lombok, and Shia communities in the town of Sampang, East Java, 

These communities have been labelled as deviating from Islamic orthodoxy, triggering social tensions that have persisted for years. While efforts such as reconversion have been attempted to resolve these conflicts, they have often failed to address deeper mistrust and systemic exclusion. For instance, despite agreeing to convert to Sunni Islam in 2020, displaced Shia families in Sampang remain unable to return to their homes. Incidents like this underscore the limitations of theological solutions in addressing such disputes, and the need for new approaches to sustainable peacebuilding.

Heresy as a Construct: Beyond Theological Deviations

Heresy, derived from the Greek hairesis, meaning choice, is not simply a theological disagreement, but a socially constructed label used to reinforce orthodoxy and socio-political control. In Islamic contexts, heresy is closely associated with zandaqah, a term historically used to describe beliefs seen as threatening to Islamic teachings. Unlike religious outsiders, those accused of heresy (zindiq) are considered “deviant insiders,” remaining within the religious fold while challenging established norms.

Interpretations of orthodoxy have varied across regions and historical periods. The variability in interpretations often reflects local dynamics, including political power struggles and cultural differences.

In cases like those of the Ahmadiyya and Shia communities in Indonesia, accusations of heresy have been used not only to uphold religious orthodoxy but also to justify social exclusion and violence. These claims serve to marginalise groups seen as challenging the dominant socio-religious order, framing them as threats to community harmony. This highlights the dual nature of heresy as both a theological and socio-political construct.

The Social Consequences of Heresy Claims

The labelling of groups as heretical has far-reaching social consequences, particularly for minority communities. In Lombok, members of the Ahmadiyya community, after facing harassment and mob attacks throughout the early 2000s, have been forced to live in temporary shelters for nearly two decades, cut off from their homes and livelihoods. In Sampang, the displacement of Shia families in 2012 due to similar violence has led to long-term social isolation. Even when attempts are made to reconcile, such as through reconversion, these efforts often fail to address the underlying mistrust and systemic exclusion that fuel conflict.

Religious Leadership in Navigating Heresy

Religious leaders have a unique role to play in addressing heresy-related conflicts, as their influence within communities allows them to mediate disputes and challenge exclusionary narratives. The 11th-century Sunni theologian Abu Hamid al-Ghazali offers a relevant framework for navigating such conflicts. In his treatise Faysal al-Tafriqa bayna al-Islam wa al-Zandaqa (The Decisive Criterion for Distinguishing Islam from Masked Infidelity), al-Ghazali argued against the monopolisation of religious truth and emphasised the importance of theological diversity. 

For al-Ghazali, disagreements over religious interpretation should not lead to accusations of disbelief or exclusion, as long as the core tenets of Islam— belief in God and the Prophet Muhammad— are upheld. His perspective highlights the potential for coexistence within religious diversity, encouraging dialogue and mutual respect instead of division. This approach offers a powerful model for modern peacebuilding efforts, where theological disagreements often escalate into social conflicts.

Toward Sustainable Peacebuilding

Resolving heresy-related conflicts requires moving beyond theological debates to address the social, political, and structural factors that perpetuate division. The displacement of the Ahmadiyya in Lombok and the Shia in Sampang illustrates the urgent need for comprehensive strategies that rebuild trust and foster inclusion within communities.

Efforts to reintegrate displaced groups must begin by fostering open dialogue between majority and minority communities. Such conversations create opportunities to dispel misconceptions and promote understanding, reducing the stigma associated with heresy claims. Facilitating these dialogues in safe, neutral spaces ensures that all voices are heard and respected, laying the groundwork for long-term reconciliation.

Strengthening legal protections is equally critical. Impartial legal frameworks that safeguard religious freedoms and prevent violence or exclusion based on theological differences are essential for creating a foundation of equality. Legal systems must actively protect the rights of marginalised groups, ensuring their safety and enabling them to participate fully in society without fear of persecution.

Religious leaders play a vital role in peacebuilding. Their influence within communities makes them uniquely positioned to mediate conflicts and promote tolerance. By emphasising shared values and challenging divisive narratives, religious actors can shift the focus from exclusion to inclusion, fostering a culture of coexistence.

Finally, addressing structural inequalities is a necessary component of sustainable peacebuilding. Displacement often exacerbates existing inequalities by limiting access to education, healthcare, and economic opportunities. Providing resources and opportunities for displaced communities helps reduce tensions and fosters social cohesion, ensuring that peacebuilding efforts are both inclusive and durable.

Reframing Heresy for Harmony

Heresy claims, while deeply divisive, also offer an opportunity to address the roots of exclusion and build more inclusive societies. The cases of the Ahmadiyya in Lombok and the Shia in Sampang highlight the limitations of theological solutions and the need for a broader approach to peacebuilding. 

By engaging religious leaders, fostering dialogue, and addressing systemic inequalities, peacebuilders can transform heresy-related conflicts into opportunities for reconciliation and social harmony. Heresy is not an insurmountable challenge. With inclusive and thoughtful approaches, it is possible to create a society where diversity is not just tolerated but celebrated as a strength.

Keywords: Indonesia, heresy, Ahmadiyya, Shia, Islam, peacebuilding, conflict, religious conflict, conflict resolution