Sudan has endured decades of devastating wars, including civil conflicts from 1956 to 1972 and from 1983 to 2005, with ongoing conflicts in many regions including Darfur, the Nuba Mountains, and the Blue Nile state. These wars have devastated large segments of the population either due to their proximity to combat zones or as systematic targets. Civilians who witness such violence gain unique insights into its ravages, distinct from militants.
In 2019, a popular uprising led to the removal of President Omar al-Bashir by the military. A peace agreement, the Juba Agreement for Peace in Sudan, was brokered in 2019, envisioning a transitional period of governance. However, this path to democracy was disrupted by a military coup on October 25, 2021, led by General Abdel Fattah al-Burham, who declared a state of emergency and dissolved the civilian-military government. The coup led to arrests of key figures, violence against protesters, and a retreat from democratic governance. In April 2023, the nation reverted to war once again when a militia group called Rapid Support Force attacked the state-run Sudan Armed Forces, leading to mass atrocities against civilians.
What does war look like from the civilians’ perspective? This article presents the findings of an oral history project involving 116 Sudanese civilians from these war-torn regions, focusing on their experiences during war and their vision for a just future for Sudan. The project has two main objectives: first, to showcase civilians’ experiences during these wars, emphasizing their suffering, the rupture of family relations, and the struggle for survival, and second, to collect diverse recommendations for promoting justice in a nation marked by systemic inequalities. The project team includes human rights investigators affiliated with the Gisa Group, an international NGO.
The project highlights the narrative power of civilian noncombatants who serve as witnesses to various forms of violence, including systematic killings, rape, looting, and the destruction of essential resources. This narrative power is inherent in civilians and can be summarized in three main categories:
(a) Violence: Respondents recounted various forms of violence, including shootings, aerial assaults, rape, destruction of property, and strategic destruction of the land. Some mentioned scorched earth strategies and theft and rape by certain rebel groups, illustrating the brutality of the perpetrators.
(b) Trauma: The violence resulted in the loss of homes, possessions, and conditions for sustainable living, leading to a profound rupture in their sense of a secure future. Many respondents experienced trauma and uncertainty, with questions about their future and how to support loved ones.
(c) Justice: What does justice entail in Sudan, and how can it be realized, and by whose standards? These are pivotal questions, and the respondents shared a diverse array of perspectives on the matter. While the vast majority expressed hope in the attainability of justice, the interpretations, methods, and possibilities for achieving it varied considerably. Among the interpretations put forth by the respondents, justice is perceived as:
- Restoration of Equal Rights: Many view justice as the reinstatement of equal rights for all citizens.
- Criminal Prosecution: Some believe justice can be achieved through the legal prosecution of those responsible for acts of violence.
- Peace-Building: Another perspective is that justice is intertwined with efforts to build and maintain peace.
- Reconciliation: Some see justice as linked to fostering reconciliation and healing within communities.
- Education: Certain respondents associate justice with the expansion of educational opportunities.
- Compensation: For others, justice involves compensation for the losses suffered.
- Divine Will: Lastly, a few respondents view justice as aligning with the will of God.
In summary, while there is a shared aspiration for justice among the respondents, the understanding of what justice entails and the paths to achieve it are multifaceted and reflect a broad spectrum of beliefs and priorities.
The oral history project represents a systematic effort to document the experiences of Sudanese civilians in war-torn regions. It highlights the inseparability of peace and justice, emphasizing that lasting peace cannot be achieved without addressing structural injustices. The narratives of the respondents carry political implications, underlining the importance of their memories, beliefs, and aspirations in the face of the current military regime. Nurturing the narrative power of civilians plays a critical role in overcoming fragmentation and working toward a just peace in Sudan.
Daniel Rothbart
Dr. Daniel Rothbart is professor at the Jimmy and Rosalynn Carter School for Peace and Conflict Resolution, George Mason University. He specializes in ethnic conflicts, power and conflict, and the psycho-politics of conflict. He is co-director of the Program on Prevention of Mass Violence and director of the Laboratory entitled Transforming the Mind for Peace.
Karina Korostelina
Dr. Karina V. Korostelina is a Professor and a Director of the Peace Lab on Reconciling Conflict and Intergroup Divisions at the Carter School for Peace and Conflict Resolution, GMU. Her research on identity-based conflicts, resilience, reconciliation, and history education is supported by 46 grants resulting in 92 articles and 16 books.
Beltina Gjeloshi
Beltina Gjeloshi is an international PhD candidate at the intersection of social psychology and conflict resolution at George Mason University. Her research focuses on the functions of socio-psychological and emotional dynamics of conflict and reconciliation practices.
