Mozambique had been a colony of Portugal for close to 400 years. Under the fascist Estado Novo regime, Portugal was determined to hold on to its remaining colonial empire, including Angola and Mozambique. The war lasted until 1974, when the Salazar regime in Portugal was overthrown. The fighting was destructive, with high military casualties and thousands of civilians killed. The independence movement had been led by the Mozambique Liberation Front (FRELIMO), which grew into a Marxist political party after the war and attempted to establish a socialist one-party state. Rhodesia and apartheid-era South Africa supported a rebel group known as the Mozambique National Resistance (RENAMO).
A civil war began soon after independence, with RENAMO fighting a guerrilla war against the government. This conflict was extraordinarily deadly, lasting until the 1990s. Both sides committed numerous war crimes, forcibly conscripting civilians, including children. The military situation became a stalemate, and it contributed to a famine that only increased civilian suffering. The war ended with a peace agreement that halted full-scale fighting but left Mozambique with a humanitarian crisis. Over one million people had died during the conflict, with millions more displaced. Landmines left behind from the civil war continued to kill and injure civilians for decades beyond the peace agreement. With the end of the war, Mozambique became a multiparty democracy. FRELIMO continued to win every election, with RENAMO, reconstituted as a political party, serving as the opposition. Following a disputed election, RENAMO took up arms again in 2013, leading to another six years of fighting. Political violence has increased in recent years, some perpetrated by the government targeting opponents or election officials.
The most recent threat to peace in Mozambique comes from fighting in the northern Cabo Delgado province. Beginning in 2017 as an insurgency, the conflict soon grew to include a jihadist group that eventually became an affiliate of the Islamic State. Close to one million people have been displaced by this latest conflict, which has seen intervention by troops from Rwanda and the Southern African Development Community (SADC). Militants have attacked large towns, including those hosting foreign energy projects, and have committed numerous human rights violations. Government forces and their allies, including the Wagner Group and South African security contractors, have also been accused of abuses. The civilians of Cabo Delgado have suffered the most from this conflict, with the fighting intensifying food insecurity and displacement in the region.
By 2024 and 2025, the Mozambican government, supported by Rwandan and SADC forces, had regained control over most major urban areas in Cabo Delgado, including Mocímboa da Praia and Palma. However, insurgent attacks have persisted in rural areas, where militants remain active despite the government’s claims of victory. The withdrawal of some regional troops has raised fears of renewed instability. The humanitarian situation remains dire, with nearly two million people requiring assistance according to the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA). Although the security situation has improved slightly, the conflict’s root causes—economic marginalization, corruption, and lack of development in the north—remain unaddressed.
Peace attempts:
The first peace talks between FRELIMO and RENAMO began in 1990, leading to the Rome General Peace Accords signed in 1992. The agreement was an acknowledgment that there was no military solution. It led to a transition to democracy, with positive progress at first. Elections were initially free and competitive, although FRELIMO has won every election since the agreement. As time went on, the conduct of elections became more contested, and currently democracy in Mozambique is not as transparent as it once was.
The renewed conflict between FRELIMO and RENAMO ended in 2019 with another peace accord, signed by President Filipe Nyusi and RENAMO leader Ossufo Momade, which ended fighting between the groups once again. Implementation of this peace deal has continued through 2025, including the disarmament and reintegration of over 5,000 RENAMO fighters—a process hailed by the UN as one of the few success stories of post-civil war reconciliation in Africa.
In 2015, Mozambique was declared free of landmines left from the independence and civil wars, a major step toward ensuring peace and safety for its citizens. However, total peace in the current conflict appears unlikely. The government’s approach to Cabo Delgado remains heavily militarized, supported by foreign actors. Negotiation with the insurgents is seen as nearly impossible, as the group’s ideological framework rejects compromise. Still, local community dialogues and regional initiatives have been introduced by religious and civil society leaders to encourage reconciliation and reintegration for those who leave the insurgency.
As of 2025, Mozambique’s stability remains fragile but improving. Continued progress toward inclusive development, fair elections, and regional security cooperation will be critical to achieving lasting peace after nearly half a century of intermittent conflict.
