Libya, a former Italian colony, gained independence in 1952 from UN trusteeship. After the discovery of major petroleum deposits at the end of the 1950s, it became one of the richest countries in Africa. Libya was ruled by a monarchy after independence; however, Colonel Muammar al-Qaddafi overthrew the monarchy in 1969 and established an authoritarian government, preserving his hold on power into the 21st century. The country experienced conflict with Chad over the uranium-rich Aouzou Strip, which was resolved in a 1994 peace agreement, and became involved in conflicts in Uganda and Central Africa. In 2011, during the Arab Spring, oppositional groups united and fought to oust—and eventually kill—al-Qaddafi.
Since then, the government has failed to effectively disband or incorporate militias. Numerous militias, especially Islamist, have proliferated and consolidated their power in the country. In 2014, the Islamic State seized the city of Derna, and during that year militia fighting reached the level of war. A steep escalation in violence occurred in July 2014, with the attack on and conquering of the capital Tripoli by Islamist militias. Officials in Tobruk and Tripoli claimed national power, each with a network of militias on its side. In early 2015, the crisis gravely escalated in the country’s west, as Islamists, democratically elected leaders, militias, and regional powers continued to vie for control. In March 2016, a UN-backed Government of National Accord (GNA) reached Tripoli, but both eastern and western governments refused to accept its authority. In September 2016, the Libyan National Army (LNA) under Khalifa Haftar seized control of major oil terminals and gradually expanded its territory until 2018, when his forces took Derna and advanced toward Tripoli. The UN-backed government repelled the offensive and in 2021 elected Abdul Hamid Dbeibeh as prime minister. Haftar continues to control much of eastern Libya, backed by Egypt, Russia, and the UAE, while Dbeibeh’s government in Tripoli maintains international recognition.
In 2023–2025, Libya’s political and security situation remains fragile. The presence of the Russian Wagner Group and other foreign mercenaries persists despite international demands for their withdrawal. In 2023, floods in the eastern city of Derna killed thousands, exposing deep corruption and negligence within Haftar’s administration and worsening public anger. Clashes between rival militias in Tripoli in 2024 killed dozens and disrupted civilian life, while ongoing disputes over election law and constitutional reform continue to block national elections. The UN has warned that renewed civil war remains possible without genuine reconciliation and disarmament. Human trafficking and migrant smuggling also remain major issues, with Libya serving as a central route for migrants attempting to reach Europe across the Mediterranean.
Peace attempts:
Despite the end of al-Qaddafi’s rule in 2011, Libya remains deeply divided. Towards the end of 2014, the UN attempted to mediate between several militias, but no consensus was reached. The December 2015 Skhirat Agreement (Libyan Political Agreement) aimed to form a transitional government to bridge the divide between east and west. The UN-backed Government of National Accord was established soon after, but many actors rejected its legitimacy. In December 2017, General Haftar declared the agreement void. Following an escalation of violence in 2020 after Haftar’s failed attempt to seize Tripoli, the UN convened the Libyan Political Dialogue Forum (LPDF). The forum established a roadmap for a transitional government, democratic elections, and a UN-brokered ceasefire, signed in October 2020.
Current UN talks between Libya’s two rival governments continue under UN envoy Abdoulaye Bathily, focusing on electoral law and unification of national institutions. In 2023, the 5+5 Joint Military Commission met to oversee the withdrawal of foreign forces, but progress has been slow. The African Union and Arab League have also engaged in mediation, calling for elections before 2025. Despite the fragile ceasefire, violence between militias still erupts sporadically. However, oil exports—the backbone of Libya’s economy—have resumed in most areas, providing cautious optimism for economic stabilization. Sustained peace will depend on transparent elections, disarmament of militias, and the departure of foreign military actors, all of which remain uncertain as of late 2025.
