The Democratic Republic of the Congo/Zaire (DRC) has been seen by many as the definition of a collapsed state, torn by conflicts on regional, national, and local levels. DRC won its independence from Belgium on June 30, 1960, after 90 years of colonization, but has since suffered a high level of violence and continuing human rights violations. Rebel factions have been fighting the government, fighting each other, attacking civilians, and being subjected to infighting. The vast country is rich in natural resources, which has prolonged the conflicts. Following the 1994 Rwandan genocide, DRC was further destabilised and after a 1997 coup, led by the AFDL (Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo), and supported by Rwanda and Uganda, DRC was involved in what is known as Africa’s first World War. After years of negotiations, the parties concluded a final peace agreement in 2003, creating a transitional government and a path toward democratic elections and a new constitution. In 2006 the first democratic elections in more than 40 years were held, but violence continued. Protests and conflicts occurred from 2011-2016 in response to political corruption and inadequate democratic elections. After significant delays, a peaceful transition in power occurred in 2018 with the inauguration of Félix Antoine Tshisekedi Tshilombo to replace Joseph Kabila, who had been President for 18 years.
In recent years, the conflict between the government and the Allied Democratic Forces (ADF) reached a war level, with major strikes being executed. The DRC’s armed forces (FARDC) are working alongside the Ugandan government and are supported by the United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO) to combat these rebels. Since 2017, it has been reported that the ADF has killed at least 2,200 people and abducted 900 people. The government’s limited wars with Kata Katanga (stemming from 2011), Ituri militia group FRPI (from 1999), and the Mayi-Mayi militias (from 2003), continued last year as well. Inter-militia violence was also high in intensity, remaining at a limited war level as over 40 active militias repeatedly clashed with each other. The M23, an armed group that began as a rebellion in 2012-2013, was defeated by FARDC and MONUSCO and was able to agree upon a ceasefire. Yet in recent years and especially in 2021, its forces have re-emerged with new weapons and capabilities. This instigated tensions between the DRC and Rwanda, as both Uganda and the DRC claim Rwanda has supported M23 in order to destabilise their countries. M23 poses a serious threat to FARDC and MONUSCO’s capabilities to combat the high level of violence faced in the country. As a result of the conflict in the DRC, over 4.5 million people have been displaced. In 2023, M23 took over major roads leading to the city of Goma, and continues to be a threat in the region.
Peace attempts:
Despite many conflicts intensifying in recent years, DRC has seen several conflicts de-escalate, with one major conflict effectively ending. With the government supported by MONUSCO, the war involving the former rebel group M23, which began in 2004, dramatically de-escalated into a non-violent crisis, following a peace agreement in 2013 and the Nairobi Agreement in 2014. The relative success of the MONUSCO mission saw the Security Council pass a resolution in March 2015, renewing the mandate for another 12 months and endorsing recommendations made in the Secretary-General’s report, but reducing troops by 2,000. MONUSCO has faced criticism for its ineffective ability to protect citizens from the ADF. Anti-MONUSCO protests occurred across the eastern region of the DRC in 2022. As MONUSCO only has the mandate to protect Congolese forces, the joint efforts from FARDC and Uganda pose a challenge. In February 2020, the FRPI and the Congolese government finally signed a peace agreement to restore stabilisation in Eastern DRC. Violence initiated by the FRPI has ensued for nearly two decades, including violence against civilians and especially women. The UN Mission in the DRC pledged to support the agreement’s efforts to dismantle the FRPI and implement a disarmament and reintegration process for the former armed groups. In April 2022, the first round of peace talks occurred which included about 30 delegations and involved actors in the conflict. The ADF and M23 were absent from these talks. Much of the Congolese public is not optimistic that these talks will achieve peace or even a ceasefire, especially due to the lack of involvement from key armed groups. Following continued violence in 2023, the US helped to broker a brief ceasefire, through engagement with the Congolese and Rwandan governments.
Recent developments (to late 2025):
In 2024-25, the eastern DRC crisis intensified dramatically, even as diplomatic efforts increased. The rebel group M23 made major territorial gains, capturing Goma and Bukavu in early 2025, displacing hundreds of thousands and killing thousands of civilians. Meanwhile the government of DRC accused Rwanda of backing M23, leading to new regional tensions and initiatives. On 21 February 2025 the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 2773 reaffirming DRC sovereignty and calling on Rwanda to halt support for M23. In June 2025 DRC and Rwanda signed a bilateral peace agreement in Washington promising troop withdrawals and economic cooperation, though the agreement excluded M23 and stalled in implementation. By October 2025, DRC and M23 signed an agreement to create a joint oversight body for a potential ceasefire, mediated by Qatar and supported by MONUSCO, but fighting continued and the peace process remained fragile.
The humanitarian situation remains among the world’s worst: millions remain internally displaced or in need of assistance, and violence persists both between militias and with the state. While the peace architecture has formalised more structures and international engagement, on the ground the conflict remains unresolved: resource-rich territories, weak state presence, regional interference, and fractured armed groups continue to undermine stability. Lasting peace in the DRC will depend not only on agreements between states, but on effective inclusion of local actors, transformation of armed groups, and building of accountable institutions.
