Cyprus

Cyprus spent several centuries under the rule of the Ottoman Empire, before it became a British colony in 1914. The majority of the island’s inhabitants are ethnic Greeks, although there is a large Turkish minority. Greek organisations such as the National Organization of Cypriot Fighters (EOKA), many of whom favoured enosis, a term for a political union with Greece, began to fight the British authorities. In response, some Turkish organisations called for taksim, the partition of the island between Greek and Turkish Cypriots. Following independence, the initial constitution of Cyprus included provisions for power-sharing between the two communities. However, inter-communal fighting broke out when Turkish politicians withdrew from the government in protest of proposed constitutional changes, leading to intervention by UN peacekeepers.

After independence, the Greek community had also become divided, between those in favour of enosis and those preferring an independent Cyprus, led by Archbishop Makarios, the first Cypriot president. Beginning in 1967, Greece was ruled by a nationalist military junta, which supported a coup in 1974 that overthrew Makarios, with the aim of achieving enosis. In response, Türkiye invaded the island. Türkiye claimed that this invasion was justified under a previous treaty, and that it was intervening against illegitimate military governments. Brief talks failed to end the conflict, and renewed fighting led to a second Turkish invasion, after the Greek junta and the Cypriot coup regime had collapsed and been replaced by democratic governments.

This second invasion led to the Turkish occupation of 36% of the island. Thousands of combatants were killed on both sides, and over 100,000 Greek Cypriots were displaced from the Turkish-occupied north. Human rights violations took place on both sides, however they were more common in the north, with the Greek refugees who were forced from their homes prevented from returning. The occupation continues, with the two sides separated by the “Green Line”, a buffer zone patrolled by UN peacekeepers. Tens of thousands of Turkish troops have been stationed on the island, and the UN has condemned the invasion and occupation, passing resolutions calling for the withdrawal of Turkish troops. In 1983, the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) was proclaimed, recognised only by Türkiye.

Peace attempts
Since the division of the island, there have been consistent international attempts to negotiate a settlement. In 1979, the US, the UK and Canada proposed what was known as the ABC Plan, which would have created a federation on the island with two zones. This was quickly rejected by both the Greek Cypriot and Turkish governments. Talks continued, but the two sides remained divided over issues of property and land, and what shape any potential bicommunal federation would take. The declaration of the TRNC’s independence has further complicated the issue, since it is only recognised by Türkiye. Talks resumed in 1984, with an eventual agreement for a federation with Turkish Cypriots retaining about 30% of the island and the withdrawal of Turkish troops. However, they collapsed when the Greek Cypriot side continued to push for further negotiations.

The Cypriot application to the European Community in 1990 led to further anger from the Turkish side. Steps towards European integration for Cyprus were met with further integration between Türkiye and the TRNC. UN Secretary General Boutros Boutros-Ghali attempted to build consensus by asking both sides to make concessions and adopting a predetermined set of measures. This time, the Turkish side refused to agree, and when Cyprus entered the European Union tensions increased even further.

Kofi Annan, the next UN Secretary General, played an important role in the next step of the peace process. In the early 2000s, both sides engaged in talks in New York, which eventually included Greece and Türkiye as well. In 2004, the Annan Plan was presented to both sides, which would have created a binational federation, including a bicameral legislature with specific ethnic quotas, and power-sharing between both communities, and all foreign troops would gradually withdraw from the island. There was controversy over the conditions for the return of property to Greek Cypriots, and the continued right of Britain, Türkiye and Greece to intervene under a 1960 treaty. The Annan Plan depended on referenda held on both sides of the divided island. The Turkish side accepted the plan, however the Greek Cypriots resoundingly rejected it. Soon after, Cyprus officially became a member of the EU.

Following the 2008 Cypriot elections, there was a renewed effort for reunification. That year, some symbolic measures were taken and there was renewed hope for a solution. Talks were held until 2012 between the UN and the two sides, however no solution was found. In 2014, renewed talks took place as relations between the North and South improved, and a Joint Declaration between the two sides laid out a framework for talks that would result in a bicommunal, bizonal federation. By 2017, however, negotiations had once again collapsed, and a solution appeared to be further away than ever before. Since then, there has been no major progress made, with tensions increasing in the Eastern Mediterranean region between Türkiye and a number of EU states, but most prominently Greece and Cyprus. There are a number of contentious issues, but the exploitation of resources near Cyprus, and an accompanying debate about Cypriot territorial waters, is one of the main issues.

In recent developments, during 2024 and 2025 both sides appear to be showing new signs of engagement in the long-stalled peace process. In March 2025, for the first time since 2017, the Greek Cypriot leader and the Turkish Cypriot leader met together in Geneva under the auspices of the UN and agreed a series of six confidence-building initiatives covering youth cooperation, environment and energy in the buffer zone, de-mining, and the restoration of cemeteries — elevating the process beyond rhetoric to practical steps. In October 2025 the Turkish Cypriots elected a new leader, Tufan Erhürman, on a platform of reviving peace talks with the Greek Cypriots and pursuing a bi-zonal, bi-communal federal model — a sharp shift away from the previous two-state stance. The Greek Cypriot president immediately welcomed this outcome and declared readiness to meet again. Concurrently, the Republic of Cyprus announced its plans to invite Türkiye’s President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan to a regional summit in 2026 during its upcoming EU presidency, signalling a diplomatic outreach despite decades of frozen relations. While these developments mark a cautious reopening of dialogue, the ultimate shape of a settlement remains uncertain and the old questions of troop withdrawal, land and property rights, and the mechanics of federation still loom large.